Tusharveer Singh and Bushra Ansari | Published: 10 April, 2024

Extreme weather events have had a profound impact on human lives in India. The frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as floods, tropical cyclones, heatwaves, and storms, has increased in recent years, resulting in many negative social and economic consequences. As a result, India’s rank in the Climate Change Performance Index 2023 is 8 out of 64 countries, dropping from 7 in 2022.

According to the Centre for Science & Environment, India experienced extreme weather events on 86% of days in 2023, resulting in a high number of casualties, as well as crop damage, and destruction of homes. Close to 3,000 people were killed, over 80,000 houses were destroyed, 1.84 million hectares of crop area was destroyed, and more than 92,000 livestock perished. These events have a widespread impact across the country. According to a study published in the Indian Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, the social and economic costs of these extreme weather events, including their impact on household consumption, livelihoods, and migration, are a growing concern. It requires urgent attention and effective mitigation strategies.

1. The Ministry of Earth Sciences reported that 58% of all lives lost in India in 2022 were because of extreme weather events such as lightning and thunderstorms.

Figure 1: Total deaths due to extreme weather events in India in recent years

Source: Ministry of Earth Sciences

2. According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, climate change has led to significant migration in India. India is the fourth worst-hit country in the world when it comes to climate change-induced migration, with more than three million people forced to leave their homes in 2020-21.

By 2050, India alone will see 45 million people being forced to migrate from their homes due to climate disasters, which is three times the current number. A report published in December 2020 by ActionAid and Climate Action Network South Asia showed that across India, about 37.5 million people will be displaced by 2030, and an estimated 62.9 million by 2050.

These displacements have a pattern, the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) has found in their study, Connecting the dots: Climate change, migration and social protection, published in 2021. Their findings show that the majority of migrants are from low-income states like Uttar Pradesh & Madhya Pradesh. This migration is both seasonal and permanent in nature, mainly undertaken by marginalised populations, who depend primarily on agriculture. Climate impacts act as stress multipliers, particularly for those who are already socio-economically vulnerable, driving them towards distress migration.

The Pulitzer Centre study shows how heatwaves, droughts, and excess rainfall are destroying the livelihoods of millions of poor people in India, who suffer the worst consequences of global warming.

Figure 2: Internal displacement due to 176 extreme weather events experienced between 2016-2022 in India

Source: Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre

3. India, with its diverse geography and population density, faces multiple challenges from extreme weather events. To address these challenges, the Indian Government has undertaken certain initiatives.

For instance, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) set up a National Disaster Alert Portal called ”SACHET” in 2023. The portal puts out regular alerts for endangered people in areas that could be affected by extreme weather events. The SACHET portal has disseminated 12.73K alerts in various states of India during times of crisis.

The Council on Energy Environment & Water (CEEW) also published a statewise vulnerability score ranking in 2021. The ranking found that Assam is the Indian state most vulnerable to climate change. Several factors are responsible for Assam’s extreme vulnerability. chief among which is the presence of the expansive Brahmaputra and Barak river basins, and Assam’s fast dwindling green cover.

Figure 3: Statewise Vulnerability

Source: Council on Energy Environment & Water Report

4. One of the ways to address the impacts of climate change, including migration, is through Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives. Under the Companies Act, 2013, certain companies are mandated to allocate a portion of their profits towards CSR, and some have done so by directing their efforts towards environmental conservation, climate change adaptation, and helping build resilience to environmental challenges. Some of these initiatives include projects supporting biodiversity conservation, sustainable agriculture, and renewable energy, all of which contribute to environmental sustainability and help mitigate the impacts of climate change.

Further, There is also a growing need to address climate-induced migration within the CSR framework. India, being one of the countries most affected by climate change-induced migration, has seen millions of people being displaced from their homes due to climate-related events. Humanitarian aid for climate refugees is being considered as part of CSR initiatives, aiming to provide support for those displaced by climate change, as reported by India Development Review (IDR).

This shift towards recognising and addressing climate-induced migration within the CSR landscape reflects an awareness of the need to support vulnerable populations impacted by environmental challenges. From 2019-21, however, there was no significant increase in CSR expenditure, due to the impact of Covid-19 from 2020 onwards.

Figure 4:The allocation of CSR expenditure for environmental concerns has been minimal over the years compared to total CSR contributions

Source: Ministry of Corporate Affairs

In conclusion, the impact of climate change on migration in India is a pressing and complex issue that requires urgent attention and comprehensive policy responses. Vulnerable populations, particularly those in low-income states such as Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, have been disproportionately affected by this issue, leading to widespread displacement. These populations encounter socio-economic challenges like having to learn new skills to be relevant in the labour market, continuing their education, and overcoming language barriers. Recent research recognises climate change as a major factor in driving migration, and underscores the need for proactive measures to address its vulnerable migrants.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives in India have started to acknowledge and respond to these challenges by focusing on environmental sustainability and supporting climate-resilient livelihoods. However, there is a need for enhanced collaboration between the government, private sector, and civil society to develop and implement holistic strategies that can effectively address the complex interplay between climate change, extreme weather events, and migration in India.

Tusharveer Singh and Bushra Ansari both work at ISDM DataSights, supported by Capgemini.

Kshitij Sarawgi and Bushra Ansari | Published: 02 April, 2024

Water is indispensable to life on Earth, and its scarcity is a global concern. This scarcity can decrease food security and reduce access to water for industrial and domestic purposes. It also has broader economic, humanitarian, and ecological implications.

According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, irrigation in agriculture accounts for 70% of water use worldwide. Intensive groundwater pumping for irrigation depletes groundwater resources and has negative environmental consequences, causing a significant economic impact on the agricultural sector and beyond.

In India, too, the majority of water consumption is for irrigation in agriculture, as per the Central Ground Water Board.

Source: Dynamic Ground Water Resource of India by Central Ground Water Board

1. It is therefore concerning that India is facing an increase in water scarcity. Northern India, particularly, experiences significant groundwater depletion. While the nation's average Groundwater Extraction was 60.08% in 2022, an improvement from 63.33% in 2017, Haryana, Punjab, and Rajasthan bucked the trend, exceeding the groundwater extraction by 100% in 2022.

The Green Revolution of 1960, marked by the adoption of water-intensive high-yield seed varieties, boosted agricultural production from 55 million tons at the time of independence to 260 million tons of food grains today, but strained water resources. In Punjab and Haryana, the epicentre of this revolution, groundwater depletion surpasses natural replenishment rates by 65%, and 34%, respectively. Free/ heavily subsidised electricity to run pumps, and no cost for water initiated to support the Green Revolution, led to excessive irrigation, exacerbating the depletion of groundwater.

Although mandated by Section 55 of The Indian Electricity Act, 2003, nationwide electricity metering remains largely unimplemented due to resistance from farmers' unions, making farmers lackadaisical about their usage. Free water and power are so politically popular in the economies of farm states that leaders do not suggest a change for fear of not being elected to power.

Source: Ministry of Jal Shakti

2. Let's look at water consumption numbers by various crops in India and analyse further why certain states are experiencing groundwater depletion.

Rice, a staple food globally and in India, demands 3000 – 5000 litres of water per kilogram for production. India, the second largest producer and consumer of rice, also emerged as the largest exporter in 2023, accounting for 40% of global rice exports.

Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2022

The above graph shows that Punjab's per-hectare rice production surpasses West Bengal's by 43.33%, despite Punjab cultivating only around 76% of West Bengal's total rice production. This difference is why West Bengal, despite being the largest producer of this water-intensive crop, hasn't depleted its water resources at the same alarming rate as Punjab has.

While wheat cultivation is less water-intensive compared to rice, it still requires 900 - 1000 litres of water per kilogram of production. However, because of its importance as a staple food in India, it still consumes a significant amount of water during cultivation.

Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2022

Punjab and Haryana produce around 43% and 30% of the total wheat yield of Uttar Pradesh, the largest producer. However, their per-hectare rates exceed that of Uttar Pradesh by approximately 16% and 25% respectively. This further shows the impact of the Green Revolution, and consequently, the over-exploitation of groundwater resources in the North-Western states of Punjab and Haryana.

Sugarcane, a crucial cash crop, requires 1500 – 3000 litres of water for 1 kg of its produce. Used in diverse industries like sugar, biofuel, paper and pulp, it also contributes substantially to economies worldwide. Globally, India ranks second in both sugarcane and sugar production, but leads as the highest consumer of sugar, consequently dominating the global sugarcane and sugar market.

Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2022

Tamil Nadu and Karnataka produce only 8.73% & 35% of what Uttar Pradesh produces. However, the per hectare rate of production of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka is much higher than that of Uttar Pradesh, the largest producer by almost 26% and 17% respectively. This explains why both these states have been coloured red (refer figure 2), with a 70% extraction of their groundwater resources.

Uttar Pradesh holds a significant position in the production of all these three crops: it's the second-largest producer of rice, and the largest producer of wheat and sugarcane in India. Despite having lower per-hectare production rates compared to other states, the sheer volume of these water-intensive crops cultivated in Uttar Pradesh might have contributed notably to the depletion of its water tables, resulting in an overall extraction rate of 70%.

3. The World Bank has helped the state government of Punjab pilot an innovative scheme to save electricity and conserve groundwater, namely “Paani Bachao, Paisa Kamao”. The scheme incentivises farmers to reduce groundwater usage. According to the World Bank, around 300 farmers were enrolled and given cash incentives to save electricity used for irrigation, resulting in water savings of between 6 and 25 percent without any adverse effect on the yield.

But to address water-related issues at a large scale, it is imperative to embrace alternative farming methods, particularly organic farming. Techniques such as Saturated Soil Culture (SSC), Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD), and System of Rice Intensification (SRI) offer viable alternatives to rice cultivation.

In AWD, irrigation is delayed until a certain period after ponded water disappears, unlike in traditional methods, where it is done immediately. Water table in the field is monitored using a simple perforated field water tube. When the water level is 15 cm below the surface of the soil, it is again flooded to a depth of around 5 cm. The water in the rice field needs to be kept at 5 cm depth to avoid any water stress that would result in severe loss in rice grain yield.

The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) reports that AWD has enabled Bangladeshi farmers to reduce rice water requirements by up to 30%, while also conserving diesel and electricity for water pumps, and increasing Boro rice yields by 500 kg per hectare. Further, practices such as mulching, tilling, and crop rotation can aid in preserving soil nutrients and conserving water, particularly in sugarcane and wheat cultivation.

Kshitij Sarawgi and Bushra Ansari both work at ISDM DataSights, supported by Capgemini.